Neutrons and neutrinos, despite their similar names, are quite different entities. Both are electrically neutral particles, so they are unaffected by electromagnetic fields. That makes the measurement of these nuclear particles problematic. Ernest Rutherford’s preliminary (1911) model of the atom consisted of varying numbers of electrons orbiting about a nucleus. Like planets orbiting the sun, […]
Neutrons and neutrinos, and why
Why you can’t measure cosmic
rays with a DMM
Cosmic ray is at once an umbrella term and a misnomer. It is not, as at one time believed, a form of electromagnetic radiation. It is a charged particle accelerated to a super-high energy level. Moreover, a ray may consist of any of a great number of particles, ranging from the simple electron to protons […]
Isaac Newton and Calculus
Isaac Newton’s great work, Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (“Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy”), published in 1687. It contains laws of motion and universal gravitation, basically asserting that the same laws apply both to small objects on the surface of the earth and to all bodies in space including the earth. This perspective was widely accepted […]
Basics of magnetic permeability
Magnetism is a broad umbrella term that signifies an array of physical phenomena exhibited by materials subject to a magnetic field. All materials are influenced to some degree by the presence of a magnetic field, but in many the effect is slight. Some materials are attracted to a magnetic field. This property is known as […]
Differential Amplifier Basics, Usage and Differences
A differential amplifier has two inputs, one inverting and one non-inverting. Modern diff amps usually sit on a single chip. Inside the microchip or pair of discrete transistors, the positive and negative signals are added and the resultant becomes the single output. The difference between these two input voltages is amplified, while any common-mode voltage […]
Mitigating shock, electrocution,
and electrical fire hazards
Most electrical hazards fall into three categories: Injury from electrical fire. Exposure to a blast caused by a line-to-line or line-to-ground arc fault. Electricians working on equipment in industrial settings where fault current is high may be injured or killed when close to an arc fault event even when electrical current does not pass through […]
Basics of chemical batteries
The chemical battery resembles a capacitor in the sense that both are capable of taking a charge, storing electrical energy and releasing it later as needed, simply by connection to a load. But these devices work entirely differently. A capacitor can be idealized as consisting of two conductive plates connected to wire leads, separated by […]
Basics of electrical conduit
The first electrical distribution system provided direct current to residential and commercial customers in lower Manhattan. It was built by Edison Illuminating Co., beginning in 1882. Earlier in the century, telegraphy networks had become widespread, and ampacity, over-current protection and similar principles had been worked out. Fuses and even circuit breakers were available early in […]
Polyphase power basics and applications: what you need to know
Many homeowners and general handy workers know at least the basics of single-phase residential wiring and polyphase power. But three-phase work is mostly the domain of professional electricians who work in commercial and industrial settings where there are three-phase services, branch circuits, and motors. When one has learned the basic circuitry and equipment, actually three-phase […]
Basics of EM signal reflections
Signal reflection is a problem that arises when the cabling between devices or terminations at either end are substandard. This can happen in copper wire, in traces on a printed circuit board, in optical fiber. It is also a fact of life for wireless communication media where signals reflect from nearby objects and can arrive […]