Second-generation beamforming refers to advanced designs using more sophisticated signal processing algorithms, larger antenna arrays, and the ability to generate higher quality, more focused beams that dynamically adapt to user movement and changing environments. This article looks at how basic beamforming works and how second-generation beamforming contributes to improved network efficiency. It closes by considering […]
What is bit jitter, and what are its component jitters?
Bit jitter can be a problem. A digital data stream is composed of a series of rapidly changing “ones” and “zeros.” Bit jitter can make it difficult to tell the difference and result in data errors. This article begins by defining jitter, then looks at its component jitters, compares bit jitter with clock jitter, considers […]
What are the three levels of TEMPEST testing?
Telecommunications electronics materials protected from emanating spurious transmissions (TEMPEST) testing, also called emission security (EMSEC) by the National Security Agency (NSA), is an NSA specification and is defined in the NATO SDIP-27 standard. TEMPEST is designed to deny unauthorized access to information derived from intercepting and analyzing unintended electrical signals, sounds, and vibrations emanating from […]
How can EMI be weaponized?
Electromagnetic interference (EMI) can be an unwanted and disruptive aspect of electronic system designs. It can also be amplified and weaponized. EMI is being weaponized in purpose-built high-power microwave (HPM) tactical systems that devastate electronics without the side effects of physical destruction. The initial weapons have been deployed, and a roadmap has been outlined for […]
Controlling EMI and improving sustainability
Optimized designs require less electromagnetic interference (EMI) shielding and other materials, improving sustainability. Improved EMI performance extends system life and reduces e-waste, further enhancing sustainability. More sustainable shielding materials are being developed for use when shielding is required. This article reviews the basics of EMI, examines common shielding materials to provide a baseline for comparing […]
How to measure PCB trace or power/return plane impedance
PCB impedances can adversely affect signal quality and EMI. Make sure those impedance values are what you expect. Uncontrolled or unexpected impedances on printed circuit board (PCB) traces and power/return planes can negatively impact the performance of electronic devices. Those impedances result from unavoidable but controllable parasitic capacitances and inductances that result from PCB structures […]
What’s a half digit and are they all the same?
The most significant digit on a DMM’s display often doesn’t count 0 through 9.
What’s the difference between a USB oscilloscope, spectrum analyzer, and digitizer?
USB oscilloscopes are highly versatile instruments. With the right software, they can perform functions usually reserved for spectrum analyzers and digitizers. In some cases, however, special instruments are needed for optimal results. This FAQ compares the functions of oscilloscopes, spectrum analyzers, and digitizers with USB interfaces. They are called USB devices because they connect to […]
What’s the difference between a PCIe analyzer and jammer?
Protocol analyzers and jammers let you test and troubleshoot the performance of PCIe interconnects. From generation to generation, PCIe speeds double. Today’s protocols can be challenging to test and qualify. In addition, advanced applications such as the non-volatile memory express (NVMe) solid-state drive (SSD) memory protocol developed specifically for use with PCIe require sophisticated testing […]
What hardware accessories can you attach to a USB oscilloscope?
A wide range of hardware accessories are available for USB oscilloscopes. This FAQ reviews a few of the more popular options including a variety of probes plus wireless synchronization of multiple USB oscilloscopes and chassis that can combine and synchronize USB oscilloscopes with other instruments like arbitrary waveform generators and multimeters. Probes and more probes […]
